The Orange Bears By Kenneth Patchen - 2419 Words

Childhood is an enjoyable time of life where a child transforms into an adult; a subject that is continually explored through poetry. As a child grows up they need, and subconsciously crave, the guidance of a parent or guardian. Poets relate to the theme of Childhood in many different ways, some with a positive outlook and others more negatively. In the Section C of the Anthology, the three poems I have chosen that discuss this theme are; Half-Past Two by U.A. Fanthorpe, Once upon a Time by Gabriel Okara and A Mother in a Refugee Camp by Chinua Achebe. Three additional poems which also relate to this topic are; The Orange Bears by Kenneth Patchen, The Pennycandystore Beyond the El by Lawrence Ferlinghetti and My Papa’s Waltz by Theodore Roethke. Each poet portrays how a child needs the guidance of an adult figure in their life, to teach them a lesson or to care for them, whether explicitly or implicitly. There are numerous ways in which these six poems compare and contrast; bo th with regard to their content and the stylistic devices that are utilised with relevance to childhood. The title of a poem can bring complexity and a deeper meaning which often foreshadows the messages given in the rest of the poem. The title ‘Once upon a Time’ has special significance as it is an allusion to the beginning of many well-known fairy tales. Fairy tales are usually treasured, well-loved books by young children, implying that the speaker of the poem thinks fondly of their childhood; a

Essay on Public Policy and Administration - 1861 Words

1. Over time, how have members of the field of public administration examined the subject of policy and administration (has the dichotomy changed)? The studies of policy and administration have been viewed in different ways; overtime, the pre-modern era to its now 21st century outlook has changed. In the beginning, kings had treasures and tax collector to oversee the daily business of the empire. Today these members are public servants working in all levels of government; implanting various inputs to produce their desired policies as results. New policies in public administration spurred from the peoples dissatisfaction with the government. From corruption, favoritism and self-preservation drew the attention of change; leading to the†¦show more content†¦303) For example, â€Å"Two months after the attacks, Congress federalized airport security by passing the Aviation and Transportation Security Act, which created the Transportation Security Administration. Prior to 9/11, security had been handled by each airport, which outsourced to private security companies.† Thereafter, TSA enforced a stricter security screening for passengers and luggage; personnel without tickets were banned from passing through security. This showed political responsiveness and representation; according to the Washington Post, more than 263 government organizations were either created or reorganized due to 9/11. (PBS.org) 2. How do states interact with other layers of government? The term intergovernmental relationship is often used to describe the way the states interact with other layers of government. This also explains their collaborative efforts in working together for a greater cause. The U.S. Constitution created what is called today as the Federalist system of government. The Federalist system shaped several layers of government; some of the models use to explain the workings of the federalist system are the layer cake model, the marble cake model, and the picket fence model. â€Å"The Constitution not only defines the structure and power of the federal government, but also contains general provisions regarding state government.† Furthermore, each state has its own constitution which contains provisionsShow MoreRelatedPublic Policy Vs. Administration863 Words   |  4 PagesPublic Policy and Administration is an interesting and important knowledge for all people. Every one on this earth, regardless of his profession, hobbies, or religious view s, faces these concepts. This paper is going to describe the concepts of public policy and administration and an importance of this area for effective and efficient management. A public policy is an activity that has a good combination between politics and administrative activities. The major goal of public administration areRead MorePublic Policy And Administration Student2374 Words   |  10 PagesTo: Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education From: Kathy Corena, Public Policy and Administration Student, James Madison University Date: 4/30/2015 RE: Racial and Economic Discrepancies in College Enrollment and Completion  ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬______________________________________________________________________________ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬ There are persistent racial and income gaps among students enrolling in and completing college. Some programs are in place to help lessen this gap, but they only reachRead MorePublic Administration : The Creation And Enforcement Of Public Policy993 Words   |  4 PagesPublic administration focuses its resources for the operations which purpose is the creation and enforcement of public policy. 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The belief in the classical period that Public Administration should be studied as its own individual field of study and not embodied within political science, management or law was a rational assumption. According to â€Å"Public administration: An Introduction,† some of the scholars in the field of public administration

Mr a robinoson free essay sample

Personal hygiene is important for a number of reasons including; Health needs, if you have specific health needs poor personal hygiene can impact this, Appearance, good personal hygiene is reflected in your appearance, Social Acceptance, it is socially acceptable to have good level of hygiene, Working Environment, it is important to look presentable in the work environment. 1. 2 Poor personal hygiene can have a number of impacts on an individual’s health and well being; physically it could lead to infection, disease, exacerbation of an existing condition or fungal conditions. Socially and emotionally it could lead to social exclusion, alienation, bullying and lack of self confidence. 2. 1 Addressing personal hygiene matters is about being diplomatic for example by asking an individual if they would like to have a bath rather than saying I think you need a bath. However, you must remember that although you might think that it is important to bath or shower every day the individual might not agree. We will write a custom essay sample on Mr a robinoson or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page If there is a definite issue about their personal hygiene, such as others complaining that the individual smells then you must address it privately and in a manner that shows respect. If you need to tell them that they smell you dont make an issue of it but just explain that it can be easily dealt with and you are there to help if they wish. 2. 2 When trying to make individuals aware of the effects of poor personal hygiene on others a good idea is to ask them how they would feel, and use naturally occurring events such as when they are toileting to explain to them why it is important to wash their hands etc. Or you could put up posters, provide them with leaflets. 2. 3 When supporting an individual to develop and improve hygiene routines it is s good idea to assist the individual with each task then allowing them to do what they can on their own, giving them more independence gradually. Take the individual shopping for toiletries and make it something that they can enjoy, however remember that not everyone feels the need to shower everyday so don’t push it too hard. 3. 1 Maintaining personal hygiene is necessary for many reasons; these can be personal, social, for health reasons, psychological or simply as a way of life. Essentially keeping a good standard of hygiene helps to prevent the development and spread of infections, illnesses and bad odours. There are many contributory factors that make up personal hygiene with the main ones being washing, oral care, hair care, nail care, wound care, cleansing of personal utensils, Personal hygiene is as it says, personal. Everybody has their own habits and standards that they have been taught or that they have learnt from others. It is essentially the promotion and continuance of good health. Probably the most important aspect of all, food hygiene is very closely associated with personal hygiene. Other contributory factors can be role models, self image, routine/habit, independence etc. 3. 2 It is important to support the preferences and needs of the individual, such as comfort, safety and security, preferred products, help deciding what items they need/ want. While maintaining their independence as much as possible, such as supporting and encouraging own choice with products and procedures. 3. 3 Maintaining dignity of an individual while supporting them with intimate personal hygiene can include taking in to account personal beliefs and preferences such as enabling them to choose their level of personal cleanliness, adequate facilities provided, choice of own toiletries. Discuss hygiene routine and agree on access to the facilities and equipment. 3. 4 With assisting an individual with intimate personal hygiene, there comes the risk to own health these can range from spread of infection to allergies to certain products which is why it is important to wear the correct PPE. Reducing the risk to your own health when assisting an individual with personal hygiene includes; being fully aware of the processes and procedures, correct use of PPE, and having good interpersonal skills and good levels of communication with the individual. 3. 6 Other people that may be involved in supporting an individual to maintain good personal hygiene could include; hair dresser, dentist, podiatrist, health care clinic, GP etc. 4. 1 Underlying personal issues that may be the cause of poor personal hygiene can include restrictions due to physical factors, such as height, weight, size, allergies or sensitivities also mental illness such as depression, dementia, schizophrenia and learning disabilities. 4. 2 Underlying issues can be addressed through the effective implementation of an individual’s person centered care plan, as well as active support of individuals by helping them understand and address any physical factors such as, skin conditions, body odour, weight issues etc. With issues such as mental health the advice and support of a professional would be advisable.

Is Helmut Newtons photography artistic Essay Example

Is Helmut Newtons photography artistic Paper Abstract Photography is a very interesting media to convey messages, feelings and opinions, and leaves a wide range of styles and methods how to do so. The photographer Helmut Newton developed a way to show his own imagination of reality and express his feelings, which is criticised by many people, for as some do not see the art in his work. They rather accuse it to be pornographic. By looking at the development of his work over time and the true meaning of his pictures, the legal side of publishing these pictures and the reproaches of his so called greatest enemy, the feminist Alice Schwarzer, I tried to show how the question whether Helmut Newtons work is artistic or pornographic is related to a created war between sexes, the battle between Newton and Schwarzer. Whilst there are many books about photography, I only could find a few information about Newtons work, mainly taken from his own autobiography, for as public places, such as libraries did not had any material. We will write a custom essay sample on Is Helmut Newtons photography artistic specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Is Helmut Newtons photography artistic specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Is Helmut Newtons photography artistic specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer I guess this is because of the context of his work. Nudity does not seem to be at its right place in a public library. However, I was willing to research Newtons work in detail at first hand, when I for example went to one of his exhibitions. But this all just showed me how interesting this topic is. For as I only see the artistic material in his work, others totally exclude it from the art-section. This seemed to be a matter of opinion, a matter of choice. My conclusion therefore is based on the fact, that people have their own right to decide what is pornographic, without being influenced by others. (283) Background Information Helmut Newton was born on Sunday, 13. October 1920 in Schoeneberg, Berlin as a son of a wealthy button manufacturer. His father enrolled him in the American School of Berlin, but he was expelled because he chose to dream about photography, swimming, and girls instead of completing his schoolwork. Later on in 1936, Newton started working on his career as a photographer and became an apprentice at the studio of the famous and well known Berlin photographer Yva, whose real name is Elsie Simon. He completed his placement after two years. Because of the great pressure of the National Socialists on the Jewish society, he left Germany in 1938 to go to Singapore, where he accepts a position as a photojournalist for the Singapore Straits Times. However, he was fired two weeks later due to incompetence. 1 After spending a couple of years in Singapore without work, trying to sleep himself through life, he lost any professional ambition. He had indifferent opinions about photography. In 1940, being only 20 years old, he got carried off to an Australian internment camp. As there was a change of government, he left the camp and after he was discharged from the army, Newton first changed his name from Helmut Neustaedter into Helmut Newton and then opened a small photography studio in Melbourne. In 1948, Newton married the actress June Brunell, which started in 1970 her own photography career under the name of Alice Springs. Newton began contributing fashion photos to French Vogue in 1961 and continued to do so for twenty-five years. During this time, he also was a regular fashion contributor to Linea Italiana, Queen, Nova, Jardin des Modes, Marie-Claire, Elle, and American, Italian and German Vogue. Introduction Helmut Newton recently had an exhibition in the NRW-Forum, Di sseldorf, Germany to celebrate his eightieth birthday. It was called Helmut Newton-Work and it included his 200 favourite pictures from the three most important areas fashion, nudes and portraits- from his last forty years of work, but arranged by his wife, June Brunell, who is said to have a major impact on Newtons photography. As his work has fascinated me over several years and I had shown great interest in this photographer from the moment I first saw his work, for me the pictures presented in the exhibition were unbelievable fascinating and they held my attention for ages. I looked at every detail and interpreted them and made up my own little stories, to find out what lies behind these pictures. They really impressed me and inspired me, giving me lots of ideas I would like to try out in photography myself. Photography is a great method to mediate and convey messages, ideas and emotions. For as I know that to give a photo the right expression you have to be talented and skilled, I can say that Helmut Newton is one of the most talented photographer, as he creates such an extensive and controversial work. However, I should add that, from what I have read of Helmut Newton himself, I am disgusted by him, his character and his beliefs, but this does not change my opinion about his work as I am still fascinated by his pictures. I am thrilled of the way he uses his surrounding to create this famous and special atmosphere in his pictures and often caught myself wishing to be set into pose by him one time. Peoples opinions however, tend to be different when it comes to Newtons work. Some people, mainly women, feel offended by his pictures or at least are not happy about the idea Newton uses to mediate his massages. I went to the exhibition with my mum and afterwards we both argued about which of these pictures should be allowed to be published and which should not, and we certainly did not come to an agreement where the line is, that should not be crossed. The phenomenon Newton would be not conceivable without the womens movement. (Bild) The womens movement has developed and grown during the period of Helmut Newtons career. Now feminist criticism is established in universities, in parts of the media, and in the minds of many people in everyday life. Whilst I really enjoy Helmut Newtons work I am aware of feminist criticism of it. Many of them title his work as voyeuristic and pornographic. It is in the context of these ideas and theories that I need to work out my own thoughts. This woman cannot run away, not even before Newtons fantasies. 2 (Alice Schwarzer). There have been many writers and commentators on Helmut Newtons work, but I have decided to focus on the writing of Alice Schwarzer, whose words are quoted above. For me, these anti-Newton writings represent the best known and most extreme reaction against the photographers work, especially in Germany. Is Helmut Newtons photography artistic or pornographic? This is my research question. My hypothesis and thesis and argument is that Helmut Newtons work is not pornographic. My belief is that the answer to this question lies with each individual. Therefore, I will argue that the photographs are not pornographic for me. However, Alice Schwarzer made it very clear, that they are indeed pornographic to her, and it is also clear that she would like to persuade me and all her other readers to take the same view. For me, I am not interested in trying to persuade others what to think, but simply, in exploring my own responses to the work. In this way, I feel that I am close to Helmut Newtons own point of view in that his art is made for himself. Main Body / Development Pictures can influence the perception of the true reality better and more effective than words. This concept was already followed by the Old Testament picture prohibition, which consists of the commandment Thy shall not make for yourself an idol3. However, this did not mean, that there was no allowance for art, as the religious started to use symbols (such as the white dove symbolises the Holly Spirit) to make their point. Pictures transport messages and raise emotions. And in our modern media society the dependence of simple visual perception and its power increases. The actual meaning of a picture, however lies rather in what kind of different details in the photo cause different feelings in our selves than just its outer look. That is why the meaning and the emotional message is dependent on the person who is looking at the picture, as the personal perception and the experience of life play a major role in deciding what we observe as reality. This person then may decide, whether the artwork he or she is looking at is artistic or not. Deciding on whether something is artistic, we first have to define the word art. Although today there is no universally accepted definition of art4, I would define art as an imitation of reality and an expression of what the artist feels. An artistic arrangement, design etc. therefore looks attractive and has been done with skill and imagination. 5 Our interest in art involves aesthetic evaluation, which might be positive or negative. Not just the viewers but also certain artists have different opinions of what is beautiful and artistic and how it should be expressed. Although Newton does not want to be seen as an artist (this fine-art crap is killing photography, in my vocabulary, art is a dirty word. 6), looking at my definition of art and his statement I use what God gives me, but arrange the world the way I like it. 7 would prove him wrong, as God gives the reality and Newtons feelings arrange his own world. It is said that an artist develops his own style through a creative reputation. For the artist therefore a sure measurement of achievement is, when the work produced continues to stay in our minds even a long time after we first got into contact with the works surface charms. There are many people, that see these surface charms as a barrier from looking deeper into Newtons photographs. For them, his pictures still cause accusations of sexual voyeurism. In todays life, nude pictures involving any kind of human being whether black or white, young or old, stand in the shadow of political and moral disapproval it could never hope to support. But why criticising and abusing Newtons work as voyeurism, if it is said that distance generates mystery and enchantment? 8 Though it is not just Newtons own work that bashes people, but more or less his influence, the influence on the viewer, the outside, the society. Newton is said to be one of the best fashion photographers of his time. He often surprises us with work that goes far beyond what an magazine editor would require. It all began in Paris in 1961, when he started his career at the French Vogue. It is a well known fashion magazine for women, that often shows the way women are looked at. A few years later, the simple fashion photos became more taboo-braking as he used implications of bestiality9. One example of this is the series he produced in the American Vogue in 1975. There, women with metal chains were presented in leather cloths, the reputation of fashion being clean and light was destroyed by a single picture series showing dirt and dark colours on the skinny bodies of the female models. Although the women were so powerful illustrated, they had a sense of submissiveness to the viewer. These pictures were telling a story; a story that was different from mind to mind. It was different to what people were used to. This was not just fashion photography anymore. It was new and it was created by Newton. Fashion photography started in the early 20th century and is said to create an image of the society, reflecting the reality and creating an important role that women play in it. It is used to sell the product that it displays, using the agency of temptation and the desire they inspire. From the start, fashion photography had close similarities with portraiture and it was not clear, where the dividing line between these two categories laid. But as no other photographer did, Newton succeeds in overshooting these lines between fashion and portraiture, combining it with nudity and nearly dissolve these lines, so that there is no clear difference anymore. It is not simple to classify a picture of Newtons to a particular genre, as it often happens that a fashion photo is nude, a nude is fashion and also portrait at the same time. It seems like Newton really enjoys playing with these genres, making it not clear to the viewer which one it belongs to. These created images constantly evoke contradictions. Real and artificial, feminine and masculine, subject and object, nude and dressed, are just some of them. (PICTURES) Women that are once dressed and then undressed again, in the same situations and poses, great, large images of nude women executed in series (such as the Big Nudes, Naked and Dressed, Domestic Nudes) he developed an infinitive repertoire. Infinitive are also the different poses and situations the models are shown. No other photographer has ever shown the female body in so many different ways, though with the help of unusual material, leaving many imaginary situations, desires and stories, which do all evoke and express his life (and ours) in a miraculous way. This is not typical and certainly not required in fashion photography, however, it is what makes Newtons work so unique over the past time and compared to other artists work. Therefore we can say, that Newton has always been much more than a fashion photographer not only, because he created this own unique style but also because he insists that concept is more important than cloths. 10 He became one of the most famous star photographers in every way. Politician, actors, artist everyone wants to be set into pose by the master of the oppressive fantasy. He portrayed people from every kind of political and aesthetic matter: Helmut Kohl in front of the German oak, Gerhard Schroeder in front of a brick wall, Andy Warhol in bed and Anthony Hopkins with an evil but mystical look. For me all these different pictures show that he is definitely a figurative artist who has the skill of using the medium of photography to create a unique imaginative world. (PICTURES) A remarkable change to the view of fashion photography happened in the years between the sixties and eighties. In this decade years of extreme creativity and productivity were created and it was during these years that the unique originality of Helmut Newtons vision took shape, that is to always try to find a new concept of beauty. In his tending to be aggressive and provocative photos, Newton reached the point where he displayed the difference between the sexes to such an extent that many parts of the society, mainly feminists, titled him with the presumption of misogyny and grouped together to make a clear stand against him. Although Newton always tried to imagine and visualise women exactly as they are. He seems to be interested especially in presenting those women that are not following but leading themselves, women, that desire and love whomever and whenever they like, most important in whatever way they like. He shows women that have command upon their own bodies and are free and willing to present them in this powerful way, that he is most famous for, women who are both responsible and willing. 11 Newton insists on the question: How do we see the women? Definitively, he has already left his answer for the world. The phenomena Newton would also not be considerable without the womens liberation. Looking at Newtons work from the beginning, one can see that parallel to his development of photography in the past forty years, the women rights and therefore their self-confidence has also changed. Women became more self-confident and independent and claim their rights of their own body. This development is visible in the art work of Newton. Whereas the women in Newtons photos from the 70s and the beginning of the 80s look less confident with their eyes slightly to the floor looking bashful into the camera, the women of the 80s and 90s radiate self-confidence. A development that Newton could not influence. Looking at that perspective, one could see Newtons work as a mirror of our time, reflecting the past and the history. (PICTURES) Accused of treating them like objects, called misogynous, porno-chic or perverted, the photographer has never been afraid of crossing the frontiers between moral and aesthetic and in his way, reinvent concepts such as the feminine, eroticism, sexuality and power. Ironically, it is the feminine side, that accuses and dislikes Newton and his work the most, although it is him who seems to command and admire women to a great extend, just as he wants the viewer to admire and love them. The war between the sexes (PICTURES). One woman became very famous because she raised her voice against this man, that uses the power of popularity and might to present his fantasy, feelings and thoughts in a way that no one else has done before, using the female body to illustrate all sorts of situations. Here, we are talking about a war between the sexes, a war that has not found an end yet. It is an continues back and forth in propaganda and cross propaganda between the most famous photographer, Helmut Newton, and the most famous German feminist Alice Schwarzer. It is she who accuses him of supplying propaganda material to this war of sexes, giving higher doses year after year. Alice Schwarzer was born in1942 in Wuppertal, Germany. She lived with her grandparents, who took great care of her. It is said that she had the best relationship with her granddad, that she had ever had with a man. In 1970 she became a member of the Paris womens liberation (Mouvement de Liberation des femmes, MLF). After she moved back from France to Gerany, she then became a liberal author until the 26. January 1977 were she found EMMA. EMMA is a bi-monthly magazine that comes out the last Thursday of every even month. It is available in every German-speaking country at large news-stands. Read by about 120. 000 people EMMA is the only magazine for women published by women in Europe. Until now, Schwarzer is still its editor-in-chief and publisher. She has written many books and articles, where she mentioned the work of Helmut Newton, where she asked other women to stand up for the womens right and especially, to stand against this so-called voyeuristic photographer, Helmut Newton. One article is directly written about Newtons work. It was published in EMMA 6/1993 and also in Schwarzers book Alice in the mens world an interim balance12. In this article, Alice Schwarzer definitely makes her point and opinion clear. There is no sympathy to Newton, no admiration, not a single positive statement. She lists every point that she can mention in a negative way and finds interesting methods to relate his voyeuristic, sadistic and pornographic work to Newtons past. It happens in her article, that she draws the readers attention to the fact, that Helmut Newton is descended from a Jewish family and that his first photography teacher, the by him admired and famous Yva (whose real name was Else Simon), was later murdered in Ausschwitz. She relates this fact to his alleged sadistic and black fantasy and is shocked that any respect and honour and pride is missing to what has happened to the Jews in the second world war. She says that his fantasy world is full of offenders in uniform or pinstripes and victims, that have the meaningful expression of being strong. Tall, blond girls, shiny black slaves and greedy mistress, that wait for their masters to get broken down. Basically she is not wrong in saying this as he indeed said in his autobiography, that he was fascinated by the domina and prostitutes and the dark atmosphere that surrounds them at the time he was living in London (1957). But Schwarzer does not only want to explain what sort of women, in her opinion, Newton presents, but she wants to build a connection between his passion for cruel, dominating but beautiful women and his past, the fact that he is Jewish and grew up in a time where pictures were made to produce propaganda. Hitler used posters and pictures to show the Germans whom they shall like and whom they should not pointing at the Jews and declaring them as bad. These pictures showed Jewish people, looking like criminals, explaining the German nation that this is how the people look like that can be ridiculed, carried off and killed. This equation forms a courageous thesis. But, however, you can feel her anti-sympathy for Newton, as she is stunned about the phantasm Newton publishes, where no picture is the product of a better one, only showing the tortured view in the own chasm13. She has the opinion, that Newtons pictures do not disturb but confirm the existing relations in a world of violence, war and torture. Newtons pictures are comparable with the fantasy of men and the awe with which the male imagination regards all women. He shows the insecure men a strong, powerful and demanding woman, and these pictures do not ask productive questions but give straight answers to the modern society therefore they are pure pornography (Schwarzer). Pornography, that is what Schwarzer sees in Newtons work. Pictures, that are made by humans of humans, have an effect of their social and psychological reality where it does not matter whether it is a pornographic, racist or anti-Semitic picture. 14 According to the law, however, representations are only pornographic, if they cause sexual state of arousal to the viewer and at the same time go beyond the agreed limits of the social values to the sexual sense of decency. 15 This would mean, that this paragraph serves to the general feeling for decency but not for the safety of the womens dignity. A point that makes Schwarzer despair. Over and over again she makes that clear. But not only through words, speeches, written articles and books, but also through legal movements she raises her voice to emphasise the importance of this topic. In 1978, Alice Schwarzer sued the German magazine Stern for offence against i 823 BGB16, that says Who offends intentionally or negligently the life, body, health, freedom, ownership or any other right of another in any way, is obligated to compensate the victim for the arised damage. It was simply the publication of some of Newtons pictures, (In July 1977 the Stern published a picture showing a naked female backside placed on a bikes saddle; in March 1978 a naked woman on the beach, covered with sand on the decisive parts of the body; and in April 1978 it was the publication of a picture showing a black female, naked, holding a microphone in her hand, however, being tied up in heavy, metal chains) that caused Schwarzer and many other women to go to court and to sue the Stern. The statement of claim of Schwarzers side said, that not only the way and manner of the presentation, but also the summery shows that there is a simple system behind it: The representation of women as an instrument of power. Schwarzer had the opinion she had deciphered a global, male conspiracy, based on a gentlemens agreement not to see women as actors but as objects of male controlled art. She also accused Newton to be the leader of this egoistic and little-caring male party, for as not many are as talented and as cold at the same time as he is. However, Schwarzer lost the conflict. The judge saw no conclusive element in Schwarzers allegation, more or less because the plaintiffs could not be in force of the personal violation of own law. Women as a group are not able to be collectively insulted, so the judge. The plaintiffs should present their concern to the legislator, as he went on. And that is what she followed the next few years. Her aim is to gain a law against the production, spreading and possession of pornography. In other words: The censorship of Pornography. She demands more rights for women, the right for women to stand up against the pornographic representation of women by artists such as Newton, to stand up for the dignity of (wo-)men with all strengths, because pornography is the propaganda for the degradation of women and has nothing to do with morality (Schwarzer). Following that concept, at the end of the 1987, EMMA got the Anti-Porn-Campaign started under the name PorNO, led by Alice Schwarzer. Being a representative of this campaign means you have to agree with Mrs Schwarzers opinion that pornography does support the violence on women and children, as pornography displays women in a humiliated position or rather as pornography is the humiliated act against women. It gives a picture of women that are human beings of second rank, born to be victims, just good enough to be used, taken, raped, and tortured. According to EMMA17, pornographic pictures and movies give rise to the pressure and constraint for women to give themselves away to this humiliation. But the actual centre of the campaign against pornography lies in the argument that Pornography causes violence. And it is so much more than just the expression of the brutality as a whole. To strengthen her thesis, Schwarzer always follows the same pattern when writing her articles. Although still seen morally wrong, women who show their body for published pictures or sell sex are still allowed to continue their trade. Schwarzer asks the women why this has been allowed to continue and gives a straight and simple answer: men. Conclusion Is Helmut Newtons photography artistic or pornographic? Working on this research question whilst looking at the developed war between Newton and the feminist Schwarzer was really interesting and had taught me many things I had not known before. I have to say it was difficult criticising Newtons work from the perspective of Schwarzer, as I do not share her opinion. Studying the feminist view on Newtons work did not hold me away from the belief that his work is fantastic and by all means artistic indeed. Though I do understand what causes Schwarzers anxiety, I still do not agree with how she tries to persuade others to acquire her opinion and do not see any value in her argument. However, I respect her opinion for as my belief is, that every individual has to decide on his or her own whether Newtons work is artistic or pornographic. Art is just the presentation of the visions and fantasies, emotions and thoughts of an artist and should not be doubt by outstanding people, for as I think that Newton only shows the forbidden desire, no one else dares to talk about, whether male or female but still captures in his/her mind. I use what God gives me, but arrange the world the way I like it. 18 (Helmut Newton) Appendix The following pictures are added for the reader of this written piece to decide for his or her own whether Helmut Newtons photography is pornographic or artistic. (PICTURES). Bibliography   Helmut Newton, Autobiographie, 2002, Bertelsmann Verlag   Helmut Newton Work, Taschen * John L. Tomkinson, The Enterprise of Knowledge, 1999, Leader Books S. A. Publications   Longman Dictionary of contemponary English, Third Edition   Alice Schwarzer, Alice im Mi nnerland eine Zwischenbilanz, 2002, KiepenheuerWitsch   EMMA: 1. EMMA 12/1987 2. EMMA Sonderband 5 3. EMMA 06/1993 4. EMMA 07/1978 * World Wide Web: 1. http://www. rpadel. dircon.co. uk/rp_helmut_newton. htm. 2. http://www. uol. com. br/modabrasil/london_link/english/helmut 3. http://www. aliceschwarzer. de/content/c1052749630440. html 4. http://www. rpadel. dircon. co. uk/rp_helmut_newton. htm 5. http://www. freitag. de/2000/49/00491501. htm 6. http://www. aliceschwarzer. de/textevon/kernthema_4,html Pictures taken from various websites, but mainly from the google-picture-gallery. Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge the help and support of the following people: John Rolfe for his great help in supervising and supporting me during my study Max van Sambeck for his information about the legal rights. EMMA for giving me some information about their work and about Alice Schwarzer Regina von Kempis-Ki ster my mom, for travelling to Di sseldorf with me to see Helmut Newtons exhibition Helmut Newton-work 1 http://www. temple. edu/photo/photographers/spring03/photographers/heatherprice/newton/biography. html 2 http://www,aliceschwarzer. de/content/c1052749630440. html 3 Bible, Exodus 20,4 4 John L. Tomkinson, The Enterprise Of Knowledge 5 Longman Dictionary of contemponary English 6 http://www. rpadel. dircon. co. uk/rp_helmut_newton. htm 7 http://www. rpadel. dircon. co. uk/rp_helmut_newton. htm. 8 Helmut Newton, Autobiografie 9 http://www. rpadel. dircon. co. uk/rp_helmut_newton. htm 10 www. uol. com. br/modabrasil/london_link/english/helmut 11 Helmut Newton Work, Taschen 12 = Alice im Mi nnerland eine Zwischenbilanz (Kiepenheuer Witsch, 2002) 13 Alice im Mi nnerland eine Zwischenbilanz (Kiepenheuer Witsch, 2002) 14 Alice Schwarzer, EMMA 12/1987 15 German law, $184 StGB Strafrechtliches Gesetzbuch (=Criminal/Penal Civil Code) 16 German law, i 823 Bi rgerliches Gesetzbuch (=Civil Code) 17 EMMA Sonderband 5, page 6f 18 http://www. rpadel. dircon. co. uk/rp_helmut_newton. htm.

Globalization & Public Health essays

Globalization & Public Health essays Globalization is commonly defined as the worldwide integration of economies in the face of substantially increased transborder trade and investment [1]. It is generally addressed in the context of economics and information technologies. Globalization has brought wealth and modernity to many of the worlds peoples. Frequently overlooked in the classroom, unfortunately, are the new vulnerabilities now exposed by globalization, including the spread of natural disease and the use of disease as possible instruments of terror. It is important to understand how globalization may be affecting global public health policies, and what implications that has for global control of infectious diseases. From a public health point of view, it is imperative that we bear in mind that infectious diseases do not recognize borders, as evidenced by the current HIV/AIDS pandemic. The two main results of globalization have been expanding international travel and increased trade. Increased trade includes the exporting and importing of foodstuffs, which are probable carriers of pathogenic microbes. Some fresh foods may be contaminated during picking, packaging, transport, or delivery [2]. Another factor that may facilitate the international spread of food borne disease is the centralized processing of human and animal foods, followed by widespread distribution. For example, if a component of animal feed is contaminated with a pathogen, a food animal could ingest the pathogen. This food animal could then pass the pathogen to anyone who consumes a part of the animal which could cause a global outbreak. Increased international travel, a result of globalization, is also a major cause of the spread of disease, and also a major factor in the threat of bioterrorism. Examples of disease spread from continent to continent include HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, West Nile encephalitis, Vibrio cholerae, coccidioidomycosis, influenza, measles, and ...

Levallois Technique - Paleolithic Stone Tool Working

Levallois Technique - Paleolithic Stone Tool Working Levallois, or more precisely the Levallois prepared-core technique, is the name archaeologists have given to a distinctive style of flint knapping, which makes up part of the Middle Paleolithic Acheulean and Mousterian artifact assemblages. In his 1969 Paleolithic stone tool taxonomy (still widely used today), Grahame Clark defined Levallois as Mode 3, flake tools struck from prepared cores. Levallois technology is thought to have been an outgrowth of the Acheulean handaxe. The technique was reckoned a leap forward in stone technology and behavioral modernity: the production method is in stages  and requires forethought and planning. The stone tool-making Levallois technique involves preparing a raw block of stone by striking pieces off the edges until it is shaped something like a turtle shell: flat on the bottom and humped on the top. That shape permits the knapper to control the results of using applied force: by striking the top edges of the prepared core, the knapper can pop off a series of similarly sized flattish, sharp stone flakes which can then be used as tools. The presence of the Levallois technique is commonly used to define the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic. Dating the Levallois The Levallois technique was traditionally thought to have been invented by archaic humans in Africa beginning about 300,000 years ago, and then moved into Europe and perfected during the Mousterian of 100,000 years ago. However, there are numerous sites in Europe and Asia which contain Levallois or proto-Levallois artifacts dated between Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 8 and 9 (~330,000-300,000 years bp), and a handful as early as MIS 11 or 12 (~400,000-430,000 bp): although most are controversial or not well-dated. The site of Nor Geghi in Armenia was the first firmly dated site found to contain a Levallois assemblage in MIS9e: Adler and colleagues argue that the presence of Levallois in Armenia and other places in conjunction with Acheulean biface technology suggest that the transition to Levallois technology occurred independently several times before becoming widespread. Levallois, they argue, was part of a logical progression from a lithic biface technology, rather than a replacement by movement of archaic humans out of Africa. Scholars today believe that the long, long range of time in which the technique is recognized in lithic assemblages masks a high degree of variability, including differences in surface preparation, orientation of flake removal, and adjustments for raw source material. A range of tools made on Levallois flakes are also recognized, including the Levallois point. Some Recent Levallois Studies Archaeologists believe the purpose was to produce a single preferential Levallois flake, a nearly circular flake mimicking the original contours of the core. Eren, Bradley, and Sampson (2011) conducted some experimental archaeology, attempting to achieve that implied goal. They discovered that to create a perfect Levallois flake requires a level of skill that can only be identified under very specific circumstances: single knapper, all pieces of the production process present and refitted. Sisk and Shea (2009) suggest that Levallois points - stone projectile points formed on Levallois flakes - might have been used as arrowheads. After fifty years or so, Clarks stone tool taxonomy has lost some of its usefulness: so much has been learned that the five-mode stage of technology is far too simple. Shea (2013) proposes a new taxonomy for stone tools with nine modes, based on variations and innovations not known when Clark published his seminal paper. In his intriguing paper, Shea defines Levallois as Mode F, bifacial hierarchical cores, which more specifically embraces the technological variations. Sources Adler DS, Wilkinson KN, Blockley SM, Mark DF, Pinhasi R, Schmidt-Magee BA, Nahapetyan S, Mallol c, Berna F, Glauberman PJ et al. 2014. Early Levallois technology and the Lower to Middle Paleolithic transition in the southern Caucasus. Science 345(6204):1609-1613. doi: 10.1126/science.1256484 Binford LR, and Binford SR. 1966. A preliminary analysis of functional variability in the Mousterian of Levallois facies. American Anthropologist 68:238-295. Clark, G. 1969. World Prehistory: A New Synthesis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brantingham PJ, and Kuhn SL. 2001. Constraints on Levallois Core Technology: A Mathematical Model. Journal of Archaeological Science 28(7):747-761. doi: 10.1006/jasc.2000.0594 Eren MI, Bradley BA, and Sampson CG. 2011. Middle Paleolithic Skill Level and the Individual Knapper: An Experiment. American Antiquity 71(2):229-251. Shea JJ. 2013. Lithic Modes A–I: A New Framework for Describing Global-Scale Variation in Stone Tool Technology Illustrated with Evidence from the East Mediterranean Levant. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 20(1):151-186. doi: 10.1007/s10816-012-9128-5 Sisk ML, and Shea JJ. 2009. Experimental use and quantitative performance analysis of triangular flakes (Levallois points) used as arrowheads. Journal of Archaeological Science 36(9):2039-2047. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2009.05.023 Villa P. 2009. Discussion 3: The Lower to Middle Paleolithic Transition. In: Camps M, and Chauhan P, editors. Sourcebook of Paleolithic Transitions. New York: Springer. p 265-270. doi: 10.1007/978-0-387-76487-0_17 Wynn T, and Coolidge FL. 2004. The expert Neandertal mind. Journal of Human Evolution 46:467-487.

Slavery Comes to the American Colonies From 1492-1750 Essay

Slavery Comes to the American Colonies From 1492-1750 - Essay Example Development in the South American colonies and the West Indies were retarded due to the control and dominance by the Spaniards. There was also a drift towards an economy based on agriculture. These two factors contributed to the development of slave-holding societies in the American colonies. In the initial stages local natives were use in the development of commercial agriculture, but the local natives were not able to withstand the heavy workload they were expected to perform and withered away. The decimation of the local communities had the benefit of providing even more land for commercial agricultural production. The lack of local natives for slave labor and the added land available for agricultural production cause the induction of the hardy African Negroes into these lands, as slaves to work on commercial agricultural production sites. (Hinton, K.V., 2005). The use of African Negroes as slaves in the American colony started when King Charles V of Spain granted a license for bringing four thousand African Negroes into the West Indies as slaves. From then on the American colonies were to witness the growth of slavery. The English involvement in trade and use of slaves started in 1562, and subsequent to the revolution in 1688 trading and use by the British was to flourish. With the royalty involved in the slave trade its growth was only enhanced. An English company was formed in 1713 with Queen Anne of England holding a quarter share, and King Philip V of Spain another quarter. This company was given the privilege of supplying 144,000 Negro slaves to the Spanish American colonies for a period of thirty years, and is an indication of the growth in slave trade and the use of slaves in the American colonies. The spread of the use of Negro slaves into the United States of America was a natural extension of the wide use

Students Debt Crisis in America Research Proposal

Students Debt Crisis in America - Research Proposal Example Of the outstanding debts, only 60% have plans of repaying while the rest either ask for loan forgiveness or default indicating that the students are in financial distress. The debt crisis in America calls for long term solutions. This will suggest solutions to the ever-increasing student debt crisis in America Solutions to the student debt crisis lie with the federal government policies that address student loans and their associated problems. Several people proposed policies that are helpful in handling the debt crisis among American students. The proposed Responsible Student Loan Act should be implemented to help in dealing with the problem of the debt crisis among the federal students. This Act was reset to include the percentage determined by the education secretary that covers administration and borrowers benefits. This plan focused on the interest rates that are related to the needs of the borrowers. It also sought to cap the federal subsidized loan by 6.8% while the unsubsidized loans and the parent loans capped at 8.25%. This Act also proposed that the education secretary in America should reissue the PLUS loans and the federal Stanford (Federal Reserve Bank of New York 102). The US government should reform the bankruptcy code that is currently offering financial distress to the loan borrowers both at the individual and business level. The code must reformation in order to allow the students and the business people to expunge their debts and restart their projects. The fresh start of their lives is difficult for the students with loan debts because Congress enacted legislation that prohibits discharging the federal students from their loans in the cases of bankruptcy. The 2005 act extended the undue hardship of the borrowers thus making students suffer highly from the financial debt crisis especially from the private loans.  

4g and 3g Network Essay Example for Free

4g and 3g Network Essay In this paper I will be discussing the different wireless networks, 3G and 4G. I will compare and contrast the 3G wireless networks to 4G networks. This essay shall also distinguish which wireless network has the fastest download speeds and service availability. I will identify the competition between the 3G and 4G networks, and which service customers prefer to use. I also will provide which phone services such as Verizon and ATT have the most network coverage throughout America. Concluding this article I would like for the reader to get a better understanding with the comparison of the 3G and 4G wireless networks. The 3G service is a high speed to information and voice services, made within the 3G wireless network. A 3G network is a high-speed wireless network, offering speeds of at least 144 kilobits per second. For comparison, a dial-up Internet connection on a computer offers about 56 kilobits per second. The 3G network is a tremendous difference offering a faster speed for internet access. In your daily use of this wireless network, you will notice the 3G network vary. Factors such as signal, location and, and network traffic all come into play (Liane, Cassavoy 2013). The 4G network is the newest mobile broadband service. Network companies such as Sprint, T-Mobile, and, Verizon have jumped on the bandwagon. See more: Unemployment problems and solutions essay   Unlike 3G, 4G has a connection capable of 100Mbps with high mobility†¦ up to 1Gbps with low mobility (Wi-Fi range) (Dachis 2010). Even though there access is different because one is an upgraded system, they both is still allow for consumers to access the internet and have clearer calling service. The architecture for both systems is used on a wide area. Nonetheless 4G has been integrated on a wireless LAN network and 3G is a wide area cell base, which notes that 3G is used for voice and information network (Moore 2010). The user’s perception of these networks will be that they will be able to access the web from these at higher speeds, especially with a 4G network. There are three different types of 4G that are used in the different wireless networks. On the graph from Adam Dachis article, he has listed these networks and their providers. Sprint uses WiMax; this speed is listed as an average downstream of 3-6 mbps, 10mbs peak and its 10x faster than 3G. Its coverage is nationwide covering major cities and markets. The monthly cost or user perception will be $60 for an unlimited 4G data and 5GB of a 3G data. The compatibility of the operating system is through all OS (via mobile) Hotspot. Verizon uses the LTE network, with a downstream of 5-12 mbps and an upstream of 2-5 mbps. Its coverage is listed in 38 markets and 60 major airports on December 5, 2010 with full nation-wide coverage by 2013. The monthly cost is set for $50 for 5GB, $80 for 10GB and $10 a GB for overages. The compatibility of the operating system is through Windows only (at the launch of MAC OS X support). GoingWimax.com has listed backward compatibility for LTE is with GSM and HSPA; and that WiMax is compatible with updates standard of Mobile WiMax and the previous standard of fixed Wimax. WiBro is an internet based system that is also used for service with cell phones. Its backward compatibility is based same database system as Wimax which is WiMax standard. HSPA+ is used by T-Mobile with a peak downstream of 21mbps peak upstream of 5.7mbps with up to 3x faster than 3G. The coverage provided is Nationwide of many major cities and markets. All of these providers have proven service, but it is just up to consumer on which service they prefer. The competition between the 4G carriers has become so fierce because consumers are looking for bargains and the best service; such as how faster is the speed of the data network, the monthly payment, the coverage of the network service, the devices that are offered by the providers and the value of service. Sprint had a head start with introduction of 4G. They have excellent coverage over the United States allowing for data nationwide. Sprint is the only one of the carriers to advertise average speeds and just peak rates (Moore 2010). Moore (2010) has found that Verizon has the best speed, T-Mobile and Sprint tied with the most affective cost margin, Sprint provided the device options to consumers and best value. Verizon has been able to cover more markets because LTE has been so popular. Verizon set the stage over ATT by expanding their markets to more consumers. Verizon is able to have more mbps than ATT as well. Verizon exceeded 5 Mbps during 82 percent of our download tests and 66 percent of our upload tests; ATT surpassed this number in only 68 percent of our download tests and 40 percent of our upload tests (Moore 2012). Head-to-head comparison of these two networks measures performance over the first quarter of 2012 and across multiple markets, throwing Verizon’s more mature LTE network together with ATT’s nascent one to see what performance each offers consumers. (Moore 2012) In conclusion 3G and 4G are both still reliable services. They allow users to successfully communicate over the internet and through their mobile devices. 4G will allow new/ old consumers to purchase more high tech devices for the convenience of modern technology and communication. This essay has shown that 4G is the newer model with more services and applications to be provided. It is now the most sort after network on the market, with its speed of 100Mbps of high mobility. The fight over the best network will continue in the future. Consumers are constantly researching for the newer, better, and fastest networks available. According to Moore 2010 Sprint has proven so far to be the best network, but surely Verizon and ATT are on the rise. They are following close behind to be the top network themselves. The competition is growing the quarters, so more than likely Sprint maybe surpassed by another device or network only time will tell. References Admin. 2009. â€Å"What Is the Difference Between WiMax and LTE? Re GoingWimax.com. http://www.goingwimax.com/what-is-the-difference-between-wimax-and-lte-4155/ Cassavoy, Liane. 2013. What is 3G Service? Received from About.com. http://cellphones.about.com/od/glossary/g/3G_definition.htm Dachis, Adam. 2010. Everything You Need To Know About 4G Mobile Broadband. Received from Lifehacker.com. http://lifehacker.com/5706644/everything-you-need-to-know-about-4g-mobile-broadband Kayne R. What is WiBro? WiseGeek. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-wibro.htm Moore, Bill. 2012. Solving the LTE Puzzle: Comparing LTE Performance. Received from Gidaom.com, http://gigaom.com/2012/04/14/solving-the-lte-puzzle-comparing-lte-performance/

The Show I Love Lucy Essay -- Television 1950s

We are all here for a spell, get all the good laughs you can. –- Will Rogers Television’s rise in popularity throughout the fifties saw the emergence of the situation comedy, a style that captivated audiences by presenting a story with a beginning, a middle, and a happy end. One of the most popular of these shows, I Love Lucy, continues to appeal to both young and old some forty years later -- and counting. For most people, the answer to how I Love Lucy continually and effectively draws viewers to the screen is that "It’s funny." There is more to this funny show than meets the eye. For television viewers of the fifties, Lucy and Ricky could have been familiar neighbors from down the street. People could relate to this young couple, the Ricardos, who were experiencing the trials and tribulations of marriage as typical Americans were. They lived in a modest brownstone in Manhattan with common worries such as paying the rent and affording new household commodities. The humor came when ordinary situations were exaggerated as Lucy managed to get herself into trouble time and time again, and proceeded to untangle herself from the mess. Ricky, her husband, would often discover -- and thwart -- her numerous schemes, and the best friends, Fred and Ethel Mertz, somehow managed to get involved as well. The zany redhead and the thick-accented Cuban were an oddly-matched pair, not only as a comedy team but as a married couple too. The combination of these factors yielded a television show that portrayed situations that average Americans could identify with. The luck of having talent is not enough; one must also have a talent for luck. -- Hector Berlioz Undoubtedly, Lucille Ball carried the show with her impeccable comedic timing an... ...ll be a "funny" show. Since we said, 'I do,' there are so many things we don't. –- Lucy Ricardo Bibliography Andrews, Bart and Watson, Thomas. LOVING LUCY: AN ILLUSTRATED TRIBUTE. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980. Andrews, Bart. THE "I LOVE LUCY" BOOK. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1985. Brady, Kathleen. THE LIFE OF LUCILLE BALL. New York: Hyperion Publishing, 1994. Halberstam, David. THE FIFTIES. New York: Fawcett Columbine, 1993. Marc, David and Thomson, Robert. PRIME TIME, PRIME MOVERS. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1992. Morella, Joe and Epstein, Edward. FOREVER LUCY. New Jersey: Lyle Stuart, Inc., 1986. Oppenheimer, Jess. LAUGHS, LUCK...AND LUCY. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1996. Sanders, Coyne Steven and Gilbert, Tom. DESILU: THE STORY OF LUCILLE BALL AND DESI ARNAZ. New York: William and Morrow Company, Inc., 1993.

Gender differences

Males will use the Splashradio in different ways than females and will react differently to how it is used. The Splashradio is designed for both males and females and they can use it in many similar situations, however, males and females may use it to play in very different ways and since the Splashradio has no major rules, it can be used however the players choose. Gender roles still hold their stereotypical values developed throughout time, but they are continuously changing. Some barriers are starting to break and girls are beginning to enjoy video games more. The difference between male and female has been culturally constructed and society teaches children what is appropriate and inappropriate based on social norms and stereotypes (Cassell 6, 28). For example, boys are generally more interested in computer games and electronics than girls. This is not due to lack of women's ability, but their access to technologies and prior negative beliefs about women and electronics (Cassell 11-12). Stereotypes wont stop girls from using the Splashradio, but it may effect how they use it. Stereotypically girls play house and Barbie's while boys play more aggressive games, like war and wrestling, due to social norms. They can still do this with the Splashradio, but it doesn't limit them to the stereotypical roles. It will allow them to easily cross the line between designated male only and female only games. Right now it is still too difficult to market towards girls alone, but since the Splashradio can be used in any situation, it should be easily marked for both sexes (Cassell 16). Just because games like Purple Moon and Hawaii High failed don't mean all will. Girls can still play with romance plots, secrets, Barbie's and other traditional interests if they wish, but they aren't limited to them (Cassell 21). Cassell and Jenkins suggested it is best not to design gender specific games, because they will tell users how they are supposed to act and what they should like. The Splashradio leaves these decisions entirely up to the user. Girls may seek â€Å"complexity in terms of character relations, not in terms of action elements† like boys do, but they will be able to create this with the Splashradio. Simplifying games or making things pink, like the tanks in â€Å"Barbie Quake† won't help girls enjoy using the Splashradio (Cassell 26). The genders are different; they think differently, like different things, and in some cases want to play differently. Girls and boys should be given equal opportunities to explore and play with the same toys and they will have this chance with the Splashradio. Typically boys tend to explore and roam more than girls do (Jenkins 267). Boys are, stereotypically, more outdoor-oriented and girls are more indoor-oriented (Jenkins 268). In the past, boys have grown up more independent, they have gained recognition for risky play, were more competitive, violent, aggressive, and participated in more role-playing activities than girls did (Jenkins 270-274). Girls grew up being more dependent, house ridden, quiet, and conservative. According to Jenkins, girls are more interested in romance novels, secrets, and gossiping. However, in the 21st century girls aren't as interested in the romance novels and slow â€Å"exploring† games, like Purple Moon (Jenkins 284). Some girls still choose to play stereotypical games, but others are interested in competitive games, just like boys. Gender roles are not as strict as they used to be and girls are discovering many new forms of play that earlier generations thought were only for boys. Girls and boys may use the Splashradio to play games like Star Wars, football, or Marco Polo. However, it can still be used to play with dolls or house, as well, but the device is not gender specific and does not limit the kind of games people play relating to gender. Only social experiences and past stereotypes will control the types of play people participate in while using the Splashradio. One major reason boys and girls will play differently with the Splashradio and other toys is gender segregation. â€Å"Not only do preschool-age children tend to self-segregate by sex, but that segregation leads to the development of different sets of social skills, styles, expectations, and preferences† (Cohen 1). Observational studies have proven that the more children play with same sex peers, the more they follow gender stereotypes created by society. Researchers Carol Lynn Martin and Richard A. Fabes of Arizona State call this phenomenon â€Å"the social dosage effect†, implying how a greater â€Å"dosage† of gender segregated play will increase gender differences (Cohen 2). It is important for children to experience mixed-gender play in order to eliminate falling into gender stereotypes, however, when playgroups include both genders, another problem may arise. Girls aren't as active in play when boys are around, because boys tend to â€Å"monopolize† toys (Maccoby 514). Powlishta's research shows when two kids are alone boys get more play time with the toy, in this case a movie viewer. When an adult is present boys are more inhibited and girls acquire at least equal access to the toys (Maccoby 515). This means that in coed situations girls may not play with the Splashradio as much as boys, unless an adult is present.

Gloucester Character in King Lear Essay

King Lear and Gloucester are similar to an extent of being tragic heroes, because they both experience the traditional features of a classic tragedy. Both characters go through the features of hubris, hamartia and culminates with anagnorisis. Shakespeare employs the double plot in ‘King Lear’, the only Shakespearean tragedy to employ two similar plots which function in a parallel manner. In doing so, Shakespeare is able to demonstrate the tragic consequences that result when the natural law is subverted. Despite both being tragic figures, the causes of their downfall are different and thus the culmination of the way both characters are considered to be tragic varies as well. Lear and Gloucester both commit blunders in the opening of the play, calling attention to their own tragic flaw, however the both the cause and impact varies. There is an indication of a power struggle as Renaissance society was patriarchal and gerontocratic, meaning men did not consider retirement nor did they pass on their power when they reached old age. Lear deciding to give away his power to his daughters, under the intention of ‘conferring them on younger strengths, while we unburthen’d crawl towards death’, would have challenged the thinking of an Elizabethan audience who acknowledged the social construct of the ‘Great Chain of Being’, the existence of a natural social of all beings and animals having their own ordained position. Both figures reject a child who truly loved them- this is their tragic flaw. Lear’s decision to ‘disclaim all parental care’ from Cordelia, is perhaps the most impactful decision, because Lear had d isacknowledged the one daughter who truly loved him. As a result, Lear’s subversion of power ‘to shake all cares and business from our age’ is perhaps more fata as a mistake in comparison to Gloucester. For Gloucester, his mistake is may be his adultery. The way Gloucester describes his son as ‘often blushed to acknowledge him’ highlights the concern of raising an illegitimate child. Consequently, Edmund seeks go against the laws of primogeniture, allowing only the legitimate child to be entitled to land. Gloucester is also  suggested to have relaxed morals, justifying the birth of Edmund with his mother as a ‘knave came something saucily to the world’. Gloucester’s fault is less reckless than Lear’s. Gloucester’s fault is arguably justifiable as he was lied to by his own son. However it is his reaction, denying thought and logic which warrants consequences. The impact of both character’s hamartia being equally destructive. According to Aristotle, he believed horror and pity are the two emotions the audience should feel while watching a tragedy, and Shak The physical suffering Gloucester endures namely, being blinded was thought to be something too gruesome to be displayed as a result, the scene had been omitted by some productions. Theatrical critic G.Wilson Knight commented on the play being ‘purposeless and unreasonable, King Lear is the most fearless artistic facing of ultimate cruelty’. The juxtaposition of Gloucester’s cries of ‘give me help! O cruel!’ against Goneril’s brutal statements ‘how now, you dog!’ highlights the ruthlessness and barbarity of Gloucester’s circumstance. 19th century criticism was notable for suggesting Gloucester is punished harshly for his misjudgement of characters and will be viewed by most audiences as a character ‘more sinned agai nst than sinning’. However, in comparison to Lear’s suffering, the King may be portrayed more so as a tragic figure. Unlike Gloucester, Lear falls into a state of madness and the audience watch Lear’s mind deteriorate progressively during the play. The dismissal of Lear’s ‘hundred knights’ by both Goneril and Regan is powerful because the knights can be considered to be a symbol of Lear’s importance. But being denied something which Lear wants and needs he notably comments, ‘Man’s life is cheap as beast’s’ as aspects including clothes and property are symbols of civilisation. As a result Lear is reduced to having nothing to his name, thus being reduced as G.Wilson Knight said an ‘elemental, instinctive life’. Near the end of the play, the king is wearing a ‘crown of thorns’, characterising his downfall as a figure who was once decorated as King of England to a person who has aligned himself with nature, furthe red by Frank Kernode stating, ‘suffering can reduce humanity to a bestial condition’ In this way, the portrayal of Lear’s madness may be seen as more tragic than of what Gloucester experienced. A further feature of a classic tragedy is both tragic figures achieving anagnorisis, (a critical moment of  recognition), near the ending of the play. The moment of realization occurs when Regan reveals to Gloucester of Edmund being a ‘treacherous villain’ Once being blinded, Gloucester comments, ‘I stumbled when I saw’, situational irony is deployed, epitomizing his realization of the events surrounding him, at a point where he is no longer able to see. Perhaps this alludes to critic Lawrence Rosinger’s comment of ‘the play is about Gloucester and Lear’s self-discovery after a period of treating the others as a means of self-gratification’, suggesting for Gloucester to recognise the true virtues of a human being, the process involves suffering and pain. However, for Lear to gain anagnorisis, I believe he is forced to endure suffering, for example, his daughters which serves to heighten the sympathy felt for Lear. This is exemplified particularly when interacting with Gloucester in Act 4, commenting ‘they (Goneril and Regan) flattered me like a dog’, the dramatic irony invoking pity because the audience is already aware of this. Once reunited with Cordelia, Lear expresses himself as being ‘bound upon a wheel of fire’, his pessimistic view, alluding to a Christian interpretation of hell. Though both characters learn through their experience, it is arguably Lear’s anagnoriss which allows him to be more tragic than Gloucester. His torment eventually reduces him to beggary, wanting ‘give me that patience, patience I need’, the chiasmus emphasising his desperation.

Importance of non-invasive physiological measurings Essays

Importance of non-invasive physiological measurings Essays Importance of non-invasive physiological measurings Essay Importance of non-invasive physiological measurings Essay Literature Review The importance of non-invasive physiological measurings such as blood force per unit area, ankle-arm index in foretelling cardio-vascular alterations The ankle-arm index ( AAI ) is a non-invasive technique that is used to test peripheral vascular diseases ( PVD ) . The ankle arm index is defined as A ; lsquo ; comparing the ratio of systolic blood force per unit area in the mortise joint with the systolic blood force per unit area in the arm, which can be calculated by spliting them severally , as stated by Vogt et Al, ( 1993 ) . It is sometimes used over other methods in the clinical industry such as serum lipoid profile which is an invasive technique ; since it is simple and straightforward. In add-on to this the AAI methodological analysis is besides used in penchant to other non-invasive techniques such as Doppler coloring material flow imagination and digital imagination as it is cheap and less drawn-out ( Babbar et al, 2005 ) . Using the AAI as a step to screen PVD has been successful in the past nevertheless, literature provinces that there are many defects and incompatibilities in the pattern of it. These defects range f rom the equipment used to the technician transporting out the measurings. The methodological analysis used in these 10 articles, is inconsistent as there is no individual article which has investigated the exact same capable country. This leads to a different perceptive being viewed in each of their methods, oppugning which technique is the most precise to utilize for mensurating the Ankle-Arm index. The first issue that was raised, consisted of which arm should be used to mensurate the brachial index ; from the literature some surveies used both the left and right arm whereas other surveies merely used one or the other along with the right and left ankle index. Majority of the processs incorporated the usage of the right arm. This may hold lead to the fluctuation shown in Atsma et Al, ( 2005 ) , saying that higher systolic blood force per unit area was recorded in the right arm than in the left. Atsma et Al, ( 2005 illustrated that this may hold been due to the fact that bulk of the participants were right handed indicating that there would hold been more musculus on that arm, taking to less compaction of the right arm by the blood force per unit area turnup. This suggests that there could be inaccuracies in the AAI and that a reading of both weaponries should be integrated to extinguish such restrictions and a wider range can be used to foretell cardiovascular disease which was besides considered in Babbar et Al, ( 2005 ) and Chang et Al, ( 2006 ) . The ankle index was measured in both legs either together or separately at the posterior tibial arteria and the dorsalis pedis arteria in bulk of the processs. Another facet which could be acknowledged is the technicians that carried out the blood force per unit area measurings. All of the writers followed a criterion protocol nevertheless there still seemed to be incompatibilities in the consequences attained. This may hold occurred due to the degree of experience gained by each single technician, besides taking into consideration how good each individual was taught the technique. The figure of technicians taking the measurings within each survey varied ; some surveies had one person such as Shinozaki et Al, ( 1998 ) while others had several Newman et Al, ( 1999 ) , Cui et Al, ( 2005 ) and Newman et Al, ( 1993 ) . In each survey, as there were incompatibilities in the form of technique used whilst obtaining consequences ; it may hold led to some persons being grouped in the A ; lt ; 0.9 class, where as if accurate measurings were obtained they may hold been grouped otherwise. The duplicability of consequences was good thought-out in most of the surveies. Some surveies felt that it was non necessary to achieve duplicate readings, as in making so there was no difference. Previous literature besides stated that if the measurings were taken within a short clip interval so a individual reading was equal Atsma et Al, ( 2005 ) . Whereas others thought that it would be better to reiterate and obtain a mean within a certain clip bound Atsma et Al, ( 2005 ) and OHare et Al, ( 2006 ) . Newman et Al, ( 1993b ) paid close attending to this affair and were keen for the technicians ( trainees ) to be to the full trained to supply keen technique. Initially, each trainee had to undergo preparation in sphygmomanometry utilizing an ordinary stethoscope every bit good as preparation in how to utilize an 8MHz Doppler to mensurate the systolic blood force per unit area. The trainees were merely approved after consequences on a repeated footing were within 2 mmHg of each other, every bit good as being examined until all stairss of the protocol were successfully completed. Atsma et Al, ( 2005 ) back this up as intraobserver variableness which was established within three different testers that were of different degrees of experience. Examiner three lacked experience compared to examiner two who had old ages of experience. This led to holding the highest intraobserver variableness with repeatability coefficients that varied from 0.12 to 0.20 matching with tester three and the lowest intraobserver variableness with repeatability coefficients that varied from 0.05 to 0.07 severally with tester two. From this rating Astma et Al ( 2005 ) found that old literature implies that duplicate AAI measuring can be drastically affected due to lack in pattern. In footings of readings, there are different readings that can be made such as the highest, lowest or mean value for the mortise joint or the arm which can be used in assorted combinations to cipher the AAI. Babbar et Al, ( 2005 ) researched the importance of this, that of which determined combinations that were plausible. The survey consisted of 60 non-smoking male participants of Asiatic, Caucasic and afro-Caribbean races. The decision was made that there were four combinations out of nine which were equal ; highest ankle/ highest humeral, highest ankle/ mean humeral, mean ankle/ highest humeral and lowest ankle/average humeral as these showed 95 % acceptableness to the criterion ( mean ankle/ mean humeral ) . This followed by saying that utilizing the same mean values for both mortise joints and humeral was an recognized control every bit good as utilizing one of the combinations of the AAI to clear up the extent of PVD or CHD. Atsma et Al, ( 2005 ) , used the highest ankle/ highe st arm substitution, this measure was taken as the aim in the survey was to place obstructions in the major arterias of the leg instead than stray parts as in the posterior tibial arteria or the dorsalis pedis arteria. Throughout the literature the blood force per unit area turnups that were used were of assorted sizes runing from 11-14cm as stated by Atsma et Al, ( 2005 ) , Babbar et Al, ( 2005 ) , Cui et Al, ( 2005 ) and Shinozaki et Al, ( 1998 ) . However, merely a few surveies mentioned the usage of a standard blood force per unit area turnup, Chang et Al, ( 2006 ) and Newman et Al, ( 1999 ) . Although it is merely the distinction of a blood force per unit area cuff it may hold affected the consequences, referred to by Beevers et Al, ( 2001 ) in which they mention that the turnup and vesica size affairs. This was because if the vesica was excessively little compared to the arm so it would hold produced an imprecise amplified step of the blood force per unit area besides known as under whomping and frailty versa if the turnup size was larger than it should be, this would be known as over cuffing. Therefore it can be suggested that utilizing merely one sized turnups for all participants may hold led to inaccuracies of the blood force per unit area measuring and that utilizing different sized turnups for persons of different sized weaponries may better the readings. Newman et Al, ( 1993 ) , used a turnup of a suited size for the right arm for each person. A Doppler stethoscope was used in all the surveies to observe blood flow as a step of the AAI. Most of the surveies used an 8MHz Doppler. Atsma et Al, ( 2005 ) used two different methods to see which technique was most accurate to observe blood flow ; one was the Doppler and another was Dinamap. It was found that the Dinamap continuously produced lower systolic blood force per unit area measurings than the Doppler, it was besides initiated that the Doppler method was more replicable than the Dinamap. Therefore the Doppler technique was approved for the methodological analysis in that survey. Babbar et Al, ( 2005 ) , used a bike ergo metre as portion of their exercising to analyze any disparity in the AAI after exercising. The exercising was performed until the voluntary was unable to go on, the bosom rate was so measured utilizing a cardio-sport bosom rate proctor. In order for the bosom rate to achieve a resting degree, the topics were requested to hold a remainder in a supine place. From this they concluded that the AAI was reduced well after exercising compared to before exercising was carried out ; nevertheless it did non go through the 0.9 cut off point. They proposed that this may hold occurred because of the cycling ; blood would hold flown down to the calf muscles doing an addition in the mortise joint blood force per unit area and concurrent to that a decrease in the humeral blood force per unit area. This may hold given an attack to test for forecast of peripheral vascular diseases or coronary bosom disease. Hietanen et Al, ( 2008 ) , besides conducted an experiment where the participants undertook exercising which took topographic point utilizing an electronically braked bike. The survey lasted an norm of 14 old ages in which three thousand five 100s and 30 eight work forces and adult females participated. Men and adult females in this survey performed exercising at different Watts, work forces performed at 50 Wattss and adult females at 40 Watts. This was besides performed until the topic was unable to go on. Hietanen et Al, ( 2008 ) concluded that the mortise joint index was independent. They suggested that the mortise joint index is an indicant of alteration within the arterias and that it could be monitored earlier so that intervention or lifestyle alteration can be pursued earlier than subsequently. Therefore utilizing exercising can be seen to assist name arterial diseases every bit good as cardio vascular diseases. The AAI measuring is used to observe cardiovascular diseases, PVD, coronary artery disease and many other diseases. Precise measurings need to be taken to have an accurate AAI, nevertheless some writers have used somewhat different cut off values compared to others. This has led to ambiguity in different fortunes within literature. Shinozaki et Al, ( 1998 ) decided to utilize 0.8 or 0.9 as the cut off value although there is merely a 0.1 difference it may hold mostly affected the diagnosing of patients. Whereas, Cui et Al, ( 2005 ) , Babbar et Al, ( 2005 ) and Vogt et Al, ( 1993 ) have systematically used 0.9 as the cut off value for claiming the patient may hold cardiovascular diseases. Newman et Al, ( 1993 ) nevertheless states that there is no cut away value to name peripheral arterial disease. This leads to the decision that different diseases will hold different cut off values which still need to be established accurately and exactly. The mortise joint arm index is affected by legion factors such as age, race, diabetes, high blood pressure and other history of wellness jobs. Most of the surveies, investigated smoke, old smoke, race, diabetes mellitus, cholesterin degrees, high blood pressure and age with their topics prior to the experiment to govern out any diagnostic patients or anything that would impact their consequences. Newman et Al, ( 1999 ) , found a strong nexus between a low AAI alongside age and gender as the survey was based on older work forces and adult females. The survey besides found that there was an extended spread of coronary artery disease in the black population than in the white population. Cui et Al, ( 2005 ) , established that age and smoke played a function in persons with a low AAI. Diabetes mellitus besides had an association with low AAI which had a higher prevalence in Whites than in Nipponese as they have a low spread of diabetes within the population. However OHare et Al, ( 2006 ) found that a high AAI was more common with people who had diabetes. Shinozaki et Al, ( 1998 ) discovered a low AAI was affiliated with chiefly high blood force per unit area and smoke and besides high serum triglyceride and diabetes mellitus. The survey discovered the relationship between high blood force per unit area and a low AAI which they concluded was besides apparent in old surveies. Hietanen et Al, ( 2008 ) learnt that an hyperbolic systolic blood force per unit area after exercising could be seen as grounds of alteration in the arterias. Hietanen et Al, ( 2008 ) illustrated that topics with a low fittingness degree had a higher opportunity of deceasing earlier than those that carried out exercising. Subjects that were grouped consequently signified grounds that a 3rd of the topics from the group of low fittingness degree died at an early age during the survey. Diagnostic lameness in adult females showed to hold a lower hazard of deceasing than symptomless adult females, although they found other surveies illustrated that there was a higher decease rate in the presence of lameness which was stated by Vogt et Al, ( 1993 ) . Newman et Al, ( 1993 ) discovered that colored races chiefly black, were notably connected to a low AAI. Newman et Al, ( 1993 ) besides found that high blood pressure and high blood force per unit area was consistent with a low mortise joint arm index in other surveies. Chang et Al, ( 2006 ) , established that the AAI decreased more with factors of high blood pressure, age and diabetes. This indicates that old medical history along with base-line information has a drastic affect on the AAI. Therefore, all these factors need to be incorporated into the concluding result of a research paper, as each facet in some manner or another can do worsening of the AAI which is related to cardiovascular diseases. Decision Looking at past literature, there is still no definite method of mensurating the mortise joint arm index to this day of the month. However, one facet which is common throughout the surveies in this literature reappraisal is that the AAI is used for forecast of peripheral vascular disease, along with other trials to name a patient with it. Cut off points are the boundaries for naming patients with cardiovascular diseases but are somewhat different in each survey ; it is non possible to hold a common cut off point as each survey has a different intent hence every bit long as consistent cut off points are used the consequences could be validated. Calculating the AAI after exercising has besides given an penetration into diagnosing of arterial diseases every bit good as PVD. Obviously it can be seen that the AAI is a dependable technique to mensurate cardiovascular diseases in the hereafter due to its simpleness and cheap nature. Mentions Atsma. F, Bartelink. M. E. L, Grobbee. D. E and van der Schouw. Y. T ( 2005 ) Best duplicability of the ankle-arm index was calculated utilizing Doppler and spliting highest ankle force per unit area by highest arm force per unit area. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 58, pp. 1282-1288. Babbar. R, Bussell. C. D, Buckley. G. A and Sivasubramaniam. S. D ( 2005 ) Post-moderate exercising testing and clinical prognostic value of ankle arm index measurings. Journal of Pathophysiology, 13, pp. 15-21. Beevers. G, Lip. G. Y. H and OBrien. E ( 2001 ) Blood force per unit area measuring: Part 1- Sphygmomanometry: factors common to all technique. British Medical Journal, 322, pp. 981-985. Chang. S, Chen. C, Chu. C, Lin. P, Chung. C, Hsu. J, Cheng. H, Yang. T and Hung. K ( 2006 ) Ankle-Arm Index is a Useful Trial for Clinical Practice in Outpatients With Suspected Coronary Artery Disease. Circulation Journal, 70, pp. 686-690. Cui. R, Kitamura. A, Yamagishi. K, Tanigawa. T, Imano. H, Ohira. T, Sato. S, Shimamoto. T and Iso. H ( 2005 ) Ankle-arm blood force per unit area index as a correlative of presymptomatic carotid coronary artery disease in aged Nipponese work forces. Journal of Atherosclerosis, 184, pp. 420-424. Hietanen. H, P A ; auml ; A ; auml ; kk A ; ouml ; nen. R and Salomaa. V ( 2008 ) Ankle blood force per unit area as a forecaster of entire and cardiovascular mortality. BMC Cardiovascular Disorders, 8 ( 3 ) , pp. 1471-2261. Newman. A. B, Siscovick. D. S, Manolio. T. A, Polak. J, Fried. L. P, Borhani. N. O and Wolfson. S. K ( 1993 ) Ankle-Arm Index as a Marker of Atherosclerosis in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation: The Journal of the American Heart Association. 88, pp. 837-845. Newman. A. B, Shemanski. L, Manolio. T. A, Cushman. M, Mittelmark. M, Polak. J. F, Powe. N. R and Siscovick. D ( 1999 ) Ankle-Arm Index as a Predictor of Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Journal of the American Heart Association, 19, pp. 538-545. OHare. A. M, Katz. R, Shlipak. M. G, Cushman. M, Newman. A. B ( 2006 ) Mortality and Cardiovascular Risk across the Ankle-Arm Index Spectrum: Consequences from the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation: The Journal of the American Heart Association, 113, pp. 388-393. Shinozaki. T, Hasegawa. T and Yano. E ( 1998 ) Ankle-Arm Index as an Indicator of Atherosclerosis: It s Application as a Screening Method. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 51 ( 12 ) , pp. 1263-1269. Vogt. M. T, Cauley. J. A, Newman. A. B, Kuller. L. H and Hulley. S. B ( 1993 ) Decreased Ankle/Arm Blood Pressure Index and Mortality in Elderly Women. JAMA, 270 ( 4 ) , pp. 465-469.

A Brief History of the Ivory Trade in Africa

A Brief History of the Ivory Trade in Africa   Ivory has been desired since antiquity because its relative softness made it easy to carve into intricate decorative items for the very wealthy.  For the past one hundred years, the ivory trade in Africa has been closely regulated, yet the trade continues to thrive. Ivory Trade in Antiquity During the days of the Roman Empire, the ivory exported from Africa largely came from North African elephants. These elephants were also used in the Roman coliseum fights and occasionally as transport in war and were hunted to extinction around the 4th century C.E. After that point, the ivory trade in Africa declined for several centuries. Medieval Times to the Renaissance By the 800s, the trade in African ivory had picked-up again. In these years, traders transported ivory from West Africa along the trans-Saharan trade routes to the North African coast or brought East African ivory up in boats along the coastline to the market-cities of north-east Africa and the Middle East. From these depots, ivory was taken across the Mediterranean to Europe or to Central and East Asia, though the latter regions could easily acquire ivory from southeast Asian elephants. European Traders and Explorers (1500-1800) As Portuguese navigators began exploring the West African coastline in the 1400s, they soon entered into the lucrative ivory trade, and other European sailors were not far behind. During these years, ivory was still acquired almost exclusively by African hunters, and as the demand continued, the elephant population near the coastlines declined. In response, African hunters traveled further and further inland in search of elephant herds. As the trade in ivory moved inland, the hunters and traders needed a way to transport the ivory to the coast.  In West Africa, trade focused on numerous rivers that emptied into the Atlantic, but in Central and East Africa, there were fewer rivers to use. Sleeping Sickness and other tropical diseases also made it almost impossible to use animals (like horses, oxen, or camels) to transport goods in West, Central, or central-East Africa, and this meant that people were the primary movers of goods.   The Ivory and Slave Trades (1700-1900) The need for human porters meant that the growing slave and ivory trades went hand-in-hand, particularly in East and Central Africa. In those regions, African and Arab slave traders traveled inland from the coast, purchased or hunted down large numbers of slaves and ivory, and then forced the slaves to carry the ivory as they marched down to the coast. Once they reached the coast, the traders sold both the slaves and the ivory for hefty profits. The Colonial Era In the 1800s and early 1900s, European ivory hunters began hunting elephants in greater numbers. As demand for ivory increased, elephant populations were decimated. In 1900, several African colonies passed  game laws that limited hunting, though recreational hunting remained possible for those who could afford the expensive licenses.   Pouching and Legitimate Ivory Trade, Today At Independence in the 1960s, most African countries maintained or increased colonial game legislation laws, either outlawing hunting or permitting it only with the purchase of expensive licenses. Poaching and the ivory trade continued, however. In 1990, African elephants, with the exception of those in Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Namibia, were added to Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, which means that participating countries agreed not to allow their trade for commercial purposes. Between 1990 and 2000, the elephants in Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Namibia, were added to Appendix II, which permits trade in ivory but requires an export permit to do it.   Many argue, though, that any legitimate trade in ivory encourages poaching and adds a shield for it since illegal ivory can be publicly displayed once purchased. It looks the same as legitimate ivory, for which their continues to be relatively high demand for both Asian medicine and decorative objects.   Sources Hughes, Donald, â€Å"Europe as Consumer of Exotic Biodiversity: Greek and Roman times,† Landscape Research 28.1 (2003): 21-31. Stahl, Ann B., and Peter Stahl. â€Å"Ivory production consumption in Ghana in the early second millennium AD,† Antiquity 78.299 (March 2004): 86-101.